Sunday, April 12, 2009

kemahiran belajar

DEFINISI KEMAHIRAN BELAJAR
Sebelum kita merujuk definisi kemahiran belajar, kita terlebih dahulu boleh merujuk kepada definisi kemahiran dan definisi belajar. Menurut Kamus Dewan Bahasa(Edisi ke3) kemahiran diertikan sebagai kecekapan atau kepandaian manakala definisi bagi belajar diertikan sebagai memperolehi ilmu pengetahuan dan kemahiran iaitu dengan adanya rangsangan-rangsangan,pemilihan rangsangan yang yang sesuai oleh organ deria,pemikiran makna sesuatu rangsangan di dalam otak,membentuk pengalaman atau ilmu pengetahuan dan mengamalkan dalam situasi yang sepadan dan perubahan tingkah laku.
Definisi bagi kemahiran belajar adalah proses untuk memperolehi teknik belajar sama ada guru atau tanpa guru. Terdapat pelbagai kajian dan pendapat terhadap kemahiran belajar yang telah diketengahkan. Menurut Abdul Razak Habib(2002) kemahiran belajar merujuk kepada gaya pembelajaran yang merangkumi motif dan strategi tertentu yang diamalkan oleh pelajar bagi memperolehi hasil pembelajaran tertentu.
Dunn dan Dunn (1992) menyatakan pelajar-pelajar yang mempunyai pencapaian akademik yang lebih cemerlang,lebih berdisiplin dan mempunyai sikap yang positif apabila mereka mempunyai teknik belajar yang berkesan.Justeru itu,kaedah dan pendekatan kemahiran belajar yang lebih praktikal adalah wajar untuk diketengahkan kepada para pelajar.




JENIS-JENIS KEMAHIRAN BELAJAR
1. Kemahiran dalam proses belajar. Ia yang melibatkan kemahiran membaca, memahami, mengingat dan mengaplikasi. Pelajar harus tahu dan mengamalkan langkah belajar berikut semasa belajar:
i. Menerima dan mendaftar data atau maklumat:
ii. Memahami apa yang diterima:
iii. Mengingat apa yang telah dipelajari:
iv. Mengaplikasi apa yang telah dipelajari
2. Kemahiran menguruskan masa. Kemahiran ini adalah kemahiran menyediakan jadual waktu belajar. Pembelajaran cemerlang bergantung kepada masa yang diperlukan untuk belajar dan menguasai sesuatu. Pelajar lemah memerlukan lebih banyak masa untuk menguasai sesuatu berbanding dengan pelajar cerdas. Pelajar harus boleh menyediakan jadual waktu belajar di rumah. Pelajar yang lemah dalam sesuatu mata pelajaran harus memberi lebih masa belajar untuk mata pelajaran itu.
3. Kemahiran perpustakaan. Ini melibatkan kemahiran mencari maklumat yang dikehendaki. Kemahiran perpustakaan akan membolehkan mereka mencari maklumat yang dikehendaki di perpustakaan. Kemahiran perpustakaan melibatkan pengetahuan sistem klasifikasi bahan rujukan, kemahiran dalam merujuk melalui kad katalog atau komputer, dan mendapat bahan rujukan daripada rak-rak.
4.Kemahiran memperoleh maklumat. Ini melibatkan kemahiran mengenal pasti, mengumpul,membuat analisa, dan menyampaikan maklumat. Dalam p&p untuk pembelajaran masteri, anda harus melatih pelajar menjadi pelajar berdikari supaya mereka mahir memperoleh maklumat atau menyelesaikan sesuatu masalah dengan sendiri.

5.Kemahiran membaca: Pelajar seharusnya dapat menguasai kemahiran membaca kerana ia akan membantu pelajar memilih maklumat yang dikehendaki dan mengenal pasti idea utama atau idea yang penting.
Pada asasnya, pelajar anda harus menguasai lima langkah berikut (SQ3R):
i. Skim: Baca sepintas lalu.
ii. Question: Menyoal
iii. Read: Membaca
iv. Recite: Menyebut kembali
v. Review: Menyemak Untuk menyemak idea utama yang telah dicatatkan supaya dapat memahaminya.
Terdapat 4 gaya pembacaan iaitu Skimming ( luncuran ) Imbasan
(scanning )Bacaan intensif & Bacaan laju .
6. Kemahiran membuat nota: Guru selalu meminta para pelajar untuk menyalin nota tetapi mereka tidak diajar bagaimana membuat nota. Kemahiran ini penting untuk menguasai sesuatu maklumat dan membantu mereka membuat ulang kaji dengan cepat serta mengingat maklumat itu.Mencatat nota bermakna pelajar mencatat maklumat ringkas dan penting sahaja Dengan pelbagai cara seperti perkataan penting, singkatan, simbol, akronim, lakaran, dan pelbagai bentuk seperti objektif, jadual, carta aliran, gambar rajah Venn & peta minda.
7. Kemahiran memotivasi: Kemahiran yang melibatkan pelajar dirangsang dengan ganjaran atau hukuman.
8. Kemahiran berfikir. Proses menggunakan minda samada untuk mencari makna dan pemahaman terhadap sesuatu,membuat pertimbangan atau keputusan dan menyelesaikan masalah.Terdapat beberapa kemahiran berfikir iaitu kemahiran berfikir kreatif &kritis, membuat keputusan serta induktif dan deduktif.
9. Kemahiran mengingat: Para pelajar selalu tidak dapat mengingati pelajaran yang telah diajar untuk jangka masa panjang.Pada asasnya, cara untuk mengingat ialah mengulang kaji: kerap kita ulangkaji lebih lama ingatan. Pelajar yang berbeza dalam kecerdasan memerlukan bilangan ulang kaji yang berbeza. Paling penting pelajar selalu mengulang kaji bagi mengingat .Mengulang nota yang telah disediakan dengan berulang kali,kerja amali atau eksperimen.

10. Kemahiran menulis : Terdapat 2 jenis iaitu menulis laporan dan menulis cepat.

11. Kemahiran mendengar: Mendengar merupakan sebahagian daripada proses komunikasi antara manusia yang melibatkan aktiviti kefahaman dan pemprosesan maklumat yang didengar.

12. Kemahiran maklumat : Keupayaan seseorang mengenal pasti keperluan maklumat mencari dan mengumpulkan, mengurus dan mengolah maklumat dan membekalkan maklumat bagi memenuhi keperluan tertentu. Maklumat tersebut boleh diperoleh dari banyak sumber.

13. Kemahiran Menjawab Soalan Pepeperiksaan Kemahiran menjawab soalan peperiksaan berbentuk objektif dan subjektif. Kemahiran menjawab soalan peperiksaan adalah penting untuk pelajar mendapat markah yang lebih tinggi dan mempunyai keputusan peperiksaan yang baik.






KEPENTINGAN MEMPELAJARI KEMAHIRAN BELAJAR
Pelbagai kepentingan yang boleh pelajar perolehi dari kemahiran belajar. Antaranya ialah pelajar akan dapat menggunakan celik akal untuk menyelesaikan masalah-masalah yang wujud, pelajar akan dapat mengaitkan pengalaman yang sedia ada dengan pembelajaran yang baru, membangkitkan kesediaan pelajar terhadap isi pelajaran yang akan dipelajari, dan melatih pelajar menggunakan persepsi dengan tepat untuk membina jalan pemikiran yang rasional.
Selain itu, objektif kemahiran belajar adalah menyediakan pelajar berupaya belajar tanpa guru, membolehkan pelajar menggunakan pengetahuan sedia ada, rakan dan bahan lain sebagai sumber pembelajaran, membolehkan murid membuat refleksi dan menilai tahap pembelajaran sendiri, membolehkan pelajar mengaplikasikan pengetahuan dan kemahiran ke situasi lain, sama ada dalam mata pelajaran lain dan pergaulan. Teknik-teknik dalam kemahiran belajar juga dapat meningkatkan pemahaman dan pencapaian pelajar. Antara teknik-teknik belajar yang dikemukakan oleh Francis P.Robinson (1961),Walter Pauk (1962) dan Peter Edward (1973) adalah seperti teknik STUV
1. S-sumarize [ringkaskan nota penting]
2. T-test your self [uji diri anda]
3. U-use [gunakan]
4. V-visualize [bayangkan selalu]



Teknik Belajar 5R
1. Recopy [salin semula]
2. Rework all model 5 x [buat semula contoh/cepat/5x]
3. Recite out loud Repeatedly [lafaz kuat berulang kali]
4. Recheck [semak semula]
5. Reasonnablenes [jawapan berpatutan/sebaliknya]
Faktor-faktor beberapa jenis kemahiran belajar di kalangan pelajar
Setiap individu adalah berbeza daripada individu yang lain. Hal ini kerana setiap individu adalah unik adan tidak ada individu lain yang seratus peratus sama dengannya, walaupun individu-individu tersebut adalah kembar seiras.
Seterusnya, terdapatnya beberapa jenis kemahiran belajar di kalangan pelajar. Antaranya adalah setiap individu mempunyai kebolehan yang berbeza. Contohnya,seorang guru dapat mengesan kebolehan dan kelemahan pelajarnya ketika proses pembelajaran. Seorang pelajar yang mahir mengira,belum tentu mampu mengingat fakta sejarah.Hal ini menunjukkan kebolehan dan kelemahan dalam diri individu.
Ketika dalam pembelajaran dan pengajaran(P&P)dilaksanakan, tidak semua pelajar mampu memahami dan mengingat pengajaran dalam masa yang singkat. Faktor yang seterusnya adalah setiap pelajar mempunyai 2 cara penerimaan ilmu iaitu penerimaan yang laju atau penerimaan yang lambat. Kemahiran belajar yang banyak membantu para pelajar mengikut tahap penerimaan masing-masing dalam proses memahami dan mengaplikasikan ilmu pengetahuan.
Setiap pelajar mempunyai kecenderungan yang berbeza. Terdapat sesetengah pelajar yang gemar belajar menggunakan kemahiran-kemahiran yang berbeza mengikut tahap diri dan minat terhadap kemahiran yang boleh memberi pemahaman dengan lebih berkesan.

KEMAHIRAN BELAJAR YANG MEMBERI KESAN POSITIF

Pernyataan mengenai dengan mempelajari kemahiran belajar akan memberi kesan yang positif kepada pencapaian pelajar sememangnya benar. Saya bersetuju dengan pernyataan tersebut dengan cara kita melihat beberapa kesan yang baik kepada seorang pelajar.

Kemahiran belajar mampu meningkatkan daya belajar dan daya intelek seseorang individu . Dengan adanya kemahiran belajar ,seorang pelajar mampu belajar dengan cara yang betul dan mengaplikasikan serta proses pembelajaran akan berterusan dalam diri pelajar tersebut.

Kemahiran belajar juga dapat memupuk disiplin belajar. Kemahiran belajar yang memupuk disiplin seperti kemahiran mengurus masa yang melibatkan pelajar membuat jadual waktu belajar untuk pembahagian masa belajar. Hal ini akan mendisiplinkan pelajar untuk belajar pada masa yang dijadualkan mengikut jadual waktu belajarnya. Pelajar juga akan dapat mengurus masa dengan lebih berkesan.

Pelajar juga akan dapat mengumpul dan memproses maklumat dengan tepat dan dari semasa ke semasa akan meningkatkan daya ingatan akibat mempelajari kemahiran belajar. Kemahiran belajar membuat suatu maklumat dari proses pembelajaran akan mudah difahami dan ingati oleh pelajar.

Pembelajaran kemahiran belajar juga akan dapat meningkatkan pencapaian individu dan sekaligus mencapai matlamat pelajar tersebut. Beberapa jenis kemahiran belajar yang dipelajari dapat meningkatkan pencapaian individu dengan membantu mereka ketika proses pembelajaran dengan cara yang betul dan berkesan. Akhirnya,seorang pelajar akan dapat membina budaya belajar yang berkesan dan membawa kecemerlangan.
PERBEZAAN PERANAN GURU DAN PELAJAR DALAM MENGAPLIKASIKAN KEMAHIRAN BELAJAR DALAM BILIK DARJAH
PERANAN GURU
PENGAJAR
Guru berperanan sebagai pengajar yang bertanggungjawab menyampaikan ilmu pengetahuan dan kemahiran kepada orang lain. Dalam bilik darjah,guru menyampaikan ilmu pengetahuan kepada muridnya mengikut sukatan pelajaran yang telah ditetapkan. Guru memberi panduan, bimbingan dan tunjuk ajar kepada seorang individu dan sekelompok manusia.
MERANCANG PENGAJARAN
Seterusnya guru berperanan sebagai merancang pengajaran. Proses pengajaran melibatkan pelajar, bahan pengajaran dan kaedah pengajaran. Guru menentukan objektif pembelajaran dalam bilik darjah. Guru akan menyediakan bahan pengajaran dengan menggunakan pelbagai aktiviti atau kaedah pengajaran yang sesuai.
PEMUDAH CARA
Maksud pemudah cara dalam aspek peranan bagi seorang guru adalah melicinkan perjalanan proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang berlaku dalam bilik darjah. Guru akan menyampaikan ilmu pengetahuan tetapi bagi konteks pemudah cara, guru berperanan menyampaikan ilmu pengetahuan dengan baik dan berkesan dalam bilik darjah. Seorang guru mempunyai tanggungjawab bukan sekadar mengajar tetapi seorang guru akan memastikan P&P berkesan.
PEMBIMBING
Guru berperanan sebagai pembimbing membawa maksud membimbing pelajar dalam pelbagai aspek seperti membantu dalam mengembangkan potensi pelajar, menyedari kelemahan atau kebolehan pelajar dan memberi latihan agar mempertingkatkan prestasi pelajar sekaligus guru akan dapat membuat penilaian pencapaian pelajar dan mengambil tindakan susulan yang sewajarnya.Guru juga perlu berbincang dengan pelajar tentang masalah atau persoalan pelajaran yang belum dikuasai pelajar.

PERANAN PELAJAR

INDIVIDU DALAM PROSES PEMBELAJARAN
Pelajar adalah individu yang menerima dan mengamalkan pengajaran daripada guru ketika pembelajaran dalam bilik darjah. Pelajar berperanan menerima ilmu pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang telah diberikan oleh guru. Dalam bilik darjah, pelajar perlu mendalami ilmu dan membuat persoalan yang berkaitan dengan mata pelajaran yang diajar oleh guru.

PELAKSANA PERANCANGAN
Para guru telah membuat perancangan kepada pelajarnya. Pelajar berperanan melaksanakan perancangan atau objektif pembelajaran dalam bilik darjah. Sekiranya objektif pembelajaran tidak berjaya, maka para pelajar belum mencapai atau melaksana objektif pembelajaran.

PERANCANG PEMBELAJARAN
Pelajar berperanan sebagai perancang pembelajaran secara teliti. Pelajar adalah individu yang menerima ilmu pengetahuan harus merancang pembelajaran dengan baik iaitu pelajar perlu mengurus bagaimana mereka dapat belajar yang berkesan agar dapat agar mengenal pasti kecenderungan gaya pembelajaran dan meningkatkan pencapaian.

MEMBUAT REFLEKSI DIRI
Selepas selesai membuat suatu bentuk latihan, ujian atau peperiksaan, pelajar berperanan untuk membuat refleksi diri iaitu dengan mengenal pasti kelemahan, kebolehan, atau persoalan yang ada dan membuat penilaian pencapaian .Pelajar perlu membuat perbincangan dengan guru dan rakan sebaya bagi bagi membuat penyelesaian masalah yang ada dan menetapkan matlamat untuk berjaya.



CARA-CARA MENINGKATKAN KEMAHIRAN BELAJAR DI KALANGAN PELAJAR

MENGHADIRI PROGRAM MOTIVASI

Para pelajar perlu diberi motivasi agar dapat meningkatkan kemahiran belajar di kalangan pelajar. Motivasi kepada pelajar dapat membantu mereka memahami kepentingan dan kesan positif kepada pelajar tersebut.

MEMBUAT JADUAL BELAJAR

Setiap pelajar perlu mempunyai jadual waktu belajar sendiri bagi mengurus masa mereka dan masa mereka digunakan untuk mengaplikasikan kemahiran belajar dan secara tidak langsung, mereka dapat memanfaatkan masa dengan lebih berguna dan mendisiplinkan diri untuk belajar.


MENYERTAI BENGKEL

Pelajar perlu menyertai bengkel-bengkel yang boleh meningkatkan kemahiran.
Dengan menghadiri bengkel,banyak aktivti yang boleh disertai yang dapat meningkatkan kemahiran belajar bagi seorang pelajar.


PENDEDAHAN KEMAHIRAN BELAJAR YANG BERKESAN

Dengan mengetahui kemahiran belajar yang betul, pelajar dapat meningkatkan kemahiran belajar dan memudahkan mereka untuk mendalami ilmu pengetahuan ketika proses pembelajaran berlaku. Cara ini akan membantu mereka mempunyai cara belajar yang berkesan dan seterusnya dapat meningkatkan daya pemikiran pelajar

Tuesday, April 7, 2009

apa itu pendengaran aktif

Mendengar merupakan satu proses menerima getaran bunyian yang sampai ke telinga kita. Untuk menjadi pendengar yang baik kita perlu manghayati apa yg diperkatakan. Menghayati memerlukan perhatian, penganalisisan dan mengingati setiap stimulasi yang didengari. Kedua-dua aspek ini penting untuk membolehkan sesorang menjadi pendengar yang aktif. Mendengar tanpa menghayati boleh diibaratkan sesorang itu hanya menjadi alat perakam yg merakamkan apa yg didengar tetapi tidak memahaminya. Sebagai panduan, adalah wajar jika seseorang itu mendengar dengan aktif dan serius tentang apa yang diperkatakan seperti dari segi:
> Intensif > Empati > Membina kemahiran mendengar > Membentuk kemahiran bertindak balas


Intensif Seseorang pendengar yang aktif akan memberi penumpuan secara intensif kepada apa yang diperkatakan oleh penutur dan pada masa yg sama mampu manganalisis beribu jenis maklumat. Sebenarnya otak manusia dikatakan mampu menerima kadar pertuturan sekurang-kurangnya 4 kali dari kelajuan purata pertuturan seseorang penutur. Ini memberi peluang kepada minda untuk berfikir semasa mendengar. Otak manusia juga boleh meringkaskan dan mengintegrasikan apa yang diperkatakan ketika proses mendengar sedang berlaku.


Empati
Empati memerlukan pendengar menganggap diri mereka sebagai penutur. Pendengar yang aktif sedia untuk menerima disamping meninjau lebih jauh apa yang disampaikan oleh penutur. Cabaran kepada seorang pendengar yg aktif ialah menerima dan menganalisis apa yang diperkatakan dan menyimpan segala pertikaian yg timbul dalam hatinya sehinggalah penutur selesai bercakap. Pendengar juga perlu mempunyai kesanggupan untuk menerima masalah yg dihadapi disamping bersedia memberi buah fikiran dari kacamata pendengar dan penutur.




Membina kemahiran Mendengar Yang Efektif
Kemahiran mendengar yang efektif terdapat beberapa ciri penting seperti-: - Mengadakan interaksi secara berhadapan .- Menghindari dari melakukan halangan dari segi gerakan badan .- Menunjukkan tanda pemahaman atau persetujuan seperti anggukan kepala, perubahan air muka dan sebagainya .-Mengutarakan soalan yang berkaitan secara ikhlas .-Menghindarkan dari mencelah kata-kata penceramah jika tidak perlu .- Tidak keterlaluan ketika berbicara sehingga menimbulkan rasa kurang senang dikalangan pendengar .- Mewujudkan aliran maklumat yang sempurna antara penutur dan pendengar .


Membina Kemahiran Bertindak Balas
Tindak balas yang diperlukan adalah tindak balas yang positif bukanya tindak balas yang negatif. Membina kemahiran tindak balas yang positif seseorang itu perlu-:
· Menumpukan kepada gelagat tertentu dan bukannya secara umum. Contohnya memberi pujian serta merta terhadap kerja yang baik oleh orang lain serta memberi alasan mengapa ia perlu mendapat pujian. Jika ia membuat kesalahan perlu ditegur dengan baik dan ikhlas supaya dapat diperbaikinya.
· Menjadikan tindak balas sesuatu yang tidak formal. Jangan mengkritik org lain secara individu atas satu-satu kegagalan yang berlaku kerana ini akan menyentuh emosi seseorang.
· Menjadikan tindak balas berorientasikan matlamat organisasi.
· Menjadikan tindak balas bertepatan dengan masa supaya tindak balas itu lebih rasional dan praktik .
· Memastikan tindak balas difahami .

learn fraction and mixed number

FRACTION AND MIXED NUMBERS
THE FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTY OF FRACTIONS
A fraction describes a part of a whole. The whole must be divided into equal parts.
Fractions are number that represent one or more equal parts of a whole. FRACTIONS: 1/2, 2/3, 3/5.
Fractions can be also be used to name a part of a collection or a set of objects or a group.
Example,
Each pencil is 1 out of 4 in the group, i.e. ¼ of the group.
Fractions can be presented with diagrams.
Example,
The shaded parts in the diagram represent 8 parts out 9 equal parts.
i.e. 8/9 of the diagram.
In a fraction, 1/6
The top number shows how many parts you have.
The bottom number shows how many parts there are altogether.
The top number is the numerator.
The bottom number is the denominator.

EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS
Equivalent fractions are fractions that represent the same value although they have different numerators and denominators.
An equivalent fraction for a given fraction can be obtained by multiplying or dividing both the numerator and denominator of the given fraction by the same number.
EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS: 1/2 = 2/4= 4/8.
5/8=10/16=15/24.



MIXED NUMBERS
A mixed number consists of a whole number and a fraction.
Example mixed numbers:
1 ½, 3 1/4, 154 5/8.
A mixed number can be represented by using a diagram and a number line can be use to arrange the mixed numbers in order.

PROPER FRACTION
Proper fractions are fractions in which the numerator (top) is less than the denominator (bottom).
Example,
1/7, 2/5, 4/9.
The value of a proper fraction is less than 1.

IMPROPER FRACTION
Improper fractions are fractions in which the numerator is equal to or greater than the denominator.
Example,

7/ 2, 11/7, 25/4.
The value of an improper fraction is equal to or greater than 1.










MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS
Multiplication of Fractions.
The multiplication of a whole number by a fraction or a mixed number is the repeated addition of the fraction or the mixed number.
Example
4 x 2/3 = 2/3 + 2/3 + 2/3 + 2/3
= 8/3
= 2 2/3.
When multiplying a fraction by a whole number:
a)
b) Multiply the numerator of the fraction by that whole number.
c) Simplify the answer to the lowest terms whenever possible.
Example,
Evaluate 8 x 4/5
Solution
8 x4/5 = 8x 4 / 5
= 32 /5
=6 2/5

When multiplying a fraction with another fraction:
a) Multiply the numerator by the numerator.
b) Multiply the denominator by the denominator.
c) Simplify the answer to the lowest terms whenever possible.
Example,
1/5 x 6/11
=1x 6/ 5x 11
=6/55.





DIVIDING FRACTIONS
Division of Fractions
A fraction is also a division between the numerator and denominator.
The division of a whole number by a fraction is the process of finding the number of times the fraction is contained in that whole number.
The division of a fraction by a whole number is actually the equal sharing of a fraction.
When dividing a fraction by a whole number:
a) Multiply the fraction with the reciprocal of the whole number.
b) Simplify the answer to the lowest terms whenever possible.
Example
2/3 ÷ 6=
2/3 ÷ 6=2/3 x 1/6
=1/9

When dividing a fraction by another fraction:
The division is done by multiplying the first fraction by the reciprocal of the divisor.
Solve 5/16 ÷25/256
Solution
5/16 ÷ 25/256
=5/16 x256/25
=16/5
=3 1/5.
When dividing a fraction by a mixed number:
a) Change the mixed number into an improper fraction.
b) Then, multiply the first fraction by the reciprocal of the divisor.




Example,
1 5/6 ÷ 3 2/3.
1 5/6 ÷ 3 2/3
=11/6 ÷11/3
=11/6 x 3/11
= 1/2

Example,
¾ x 7/18 ÷ 49/27
= ¾ x 7/18 x 27/49
=9/ 56

ADDING AND SUBTRACTING FRACTIONS
Addition of Fractions
Addition of fractions is the process of finding the sum of two or more fractions.
To add fractions having the same denominator:
a) Retain the denominator.
b) Add the numerators only.
c) Simplify the answer to the lowest terms whenever possible.

Example,
15/25 + 5/25
=15+5 /25
=20/ 25
=4/5






SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS
Subtraction of fractions is the process of finding the different between fractions.
To subtract fractions having the same denominator:
a) Retain the denominator.
b) Subtract only the numerators
Example
8/15 – 2/15
=8-2 /15
=6 /15
=2/5

To subtract fractions that has different denominators:
Find the LCM of the denominators to get the common denominator for fractions.
Example,
7/9 -2/5
=7X5 / 9X5 - 2X9/ 5X9
=35-18 /45
=17/45

MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING MIXED NUMBERS
When multiplying a mixed numbers and a whole number:
a) Change the mixed number into an improper fraction.
b) Then, multiply the numerator with the whole number.
c) When multiplying two mixed numbers : Change both the mixed numbers into improper fractions before multiplying them.
d) Simplify the answer to the lowest terms whenever possible.




Example, 7 x 3 1/14
Solution
7x 3 1/14 =7 x 43/14
=7x 43 /14
=43/2
=21 ½.

Solve
4 2/5 x 3 4/7
= 22/5 x 25/7
=110 /7
=15 5/7

When multiplying a mixed numbers and a whole number:
e) Change the mixed number into an improper fraction.
f) Then, multiply the numerator with the whole number.
g) Simplify the answer to the lowest terms whenever possible.
Example, 7 x 3 1/14
Solution
7x 3 1/14 =7 x 43/14
=7x 43 /14
=43/2
=21 ½.


When dividing a fraction by a mixed number:
c) Change the mixed number into an improper fraction.
d) Then, multiply the first fraction by the reciprocal of the divisor.



Example,
1 5/6 ÷ 3 2/3.
1 5/6 ÷ 3 2/3
=11/6 ÷11/3
=11/6 x 3/11
= 1/2

ADDING AND SUBTRACTING MIXED NUMBERS
To add fractions and mixed numbers
a) Add the fractions and the whole numbers separately.
b) Add the fractions before adding the whole numbers.
Example,
3 3/5 + 13/25
=3 + 3/5 + 13/25
=3 + 3x5 /5x5 + 13/25
=3 + 15+13/25
=3 +28/25
=3+ 1 3/25
=4 3/25.
To add a mixed number to another mixed number:
Change the mixed numbers into improper fractions first, and then add them up.
Example, solve 5 1/3 + 4 2/5
=16/3 +22/5
= (16 x5) + (22 x 3) / 15 =80+66 /15
=146/15
=9 11/ 15





To subtract a mixed number from another mixed number that is greater
Change the mixed numbers into improper fractions first and then subtract them.
Example,
20 7/8 -18 2/7
=167/8 - 128/7
=1169 -1024 / 56
=145 /56
=2 33/56.
Solve 13 2/3 + 7 – ¼
= (13 +7) + (2/3 – ¼)
=20 + 8-3/12
=20 + 5/12
=20 5 /12.
DECIMALS
Decimals are fractions whose denominator is a multiple of 10, that is 10, 100,
1 000 and so on.
Example, the shade areas represent 8 of 10 parts, that is 8 /10 parts.
1 of 10 parts = 1/ 10
= 0.1
Since: 1/ 10 =0.1
Therefore: 8/ 10 = 0.1 x 8 = 0.8
Hence, decimal and fraction are interchangeable.
Decimal numbers can be represented on a number line as shown below. In this way, the values of any two decimals can be compared easily.
Decimals can be arranged in ascending or descending order.
Place value and value of a digit in decimals
Each digit in a decimal has a specific place value which determines the value of the digit.
For the number 37.156, the table below shows the place value of each digit and the value of a each digit.


PLACE VALUE
DECIMAL
VALUE OF THE DIGIT
Tens (10)
3
30
Units (1)
7
7
Decimal point


Tenths (1/ 10)
1
0.1
Hundredths (1 / 100)
5
0.05
Thousandths (1 / 1000)
6
0.006

Each digit has only one place value and that place determines the value of the digit. For example , the place value of the digit 5 is hundredths and therefore, the value of the digit is 0.05.
37.156 =37 + 0.1 + 0.05 +0.006
= 37 +1/10 + 5/100 + 6 /1 000
ROUNDING OFF DECIMALS
The decimal place ( d.p) of a decimal is the number of digits to the right of the decimal point.
A decimal can be rounded off correct to a certain number of decimal places.The method of rounding off a decimal is similar to the method of rounding off a whole number.The following are steps to round off a decimal to a specific number of decimal places.
Example
Round off 87.4592 to
a) the nearest whole number
b) 1 decimal place
c) 2 decimal places
Solution
a)87.4592 = 87
b)87.4592 =87.5
c)87.4592 =87.46
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION WITH DECIMALS
ADDITION OF DECIMALS
Addition of decimals is the process of finding the sum of two or more decimals.
To add two or more decimals:
a) Arrange the digits of the decimals according to their place values.
b) Then, add the digits from right to left.
Example
Solve 3.5 + 7.029 +18.953 =
3.5
+ 7.029
+ 18.953
=29.482

SUBTRACTION OF DECIMAL
Subtraction of decimals is the process of finding the difference between two decimals.
To subtract two or more decimals
a) Arrange the digits of the decimals according to their place values. Line up the decimal points.
b) Subtract the digits from right to left.
Example,
Solve 49.81 – 10.19 -3.54
= 49.81
- 10.19
39.62
- 3.54
36.08




DIVISION AND MULTIPLICATION WITH DECIMALS
DIVIDING DECIMALS
To divide a decimal by a whole number:
Use the long division method and place the decimal point exactly above the decimal point of the number to be divided.

Example
Evaluate 75.38 ÷ 5
=75.38 / 5
=15.076

To divide a decimal by 10, 100, or 1 000:
Move the decimal point 1, 2, or 3 places to the left according to the number of zeros in 10, 100, 1000 respectively.

To divide a decimal by 0.1, 0.01, or 0.001:
Move the decimal point 1, 2 or 3 places to the right according to the number of decimal places in 0.1, 0.01, and 0.001 respectively.

Example,
Divide the following
a) 79.88 ÷100
=0.7988

b) 22.128 ÷ 0.001
=22 128





MULTIPLYING TWO OR MORE DECIMALS
The multiplication of a whole number and a decimal is a process of repeated addition of that decimal.
To multiply two or more decimals:
a) Multiply as for whole numbers from right to left.
b) Find the total number of decimal places in the product which is the sum of decimal places in each number involved.
c) Place the decimal point according to the total number of decimal places in the product.
Example
a) 18.13 x 5
= 18.13
X 5
90.65

To multiply a decimal by 10, 100 and 1 000 :
Move the decimal pints 1, 2 or 3 places to the right of the decimals according to the number of zeros in 10, 100 and 1 000 respectively.

Example
a) 0.054 x 10 =0.54
b) 1.796 x 100 = 179.6
c) 48.38 X 1 000 = 48 380









FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS
Representing fractions with denominators 10,100, and 1 000 can be expressed in decimals.
Since 1/10 = 0.1 and 1/100 =0.01 and 1/ 1000 =0.001
- 81/ 100 =0.81
- 2 73/1 000 = 2.073
Changing fractions to decimals and vice versa

When changing a fraction to a decimal:
Divide the numerator by its denominator.

Example,
15/8
=15 ÷8
= 1.875.

When changing a decimal to a fraction
a) Count the number of digits in the decimal.
b) Then, write a fraction with a denominator that is a multiple of 10.
c) Simplify the answer to the lowest terms whenever possible.

Example,

Convert the decimals into fractions

a) 0.02

= 2/100

b) 0.075

=75/1 000






PERCENTAGES
PERCENTAGE
A fraction with 100 as the denominator is called a percentage. In this case, the numerator represents the number of parts in every 100.
The symbol % is used o represent percentage.
Example 80 / 100 is stated as 80 % and as 14 % stated as 14 /100.

RELATION BETWEEN PERCENTS, DECIMALS AND FRACTIONS
Decimals, Fractions and Percentages are just different ways of showing the same value:
A Half can be written…
As a fraction: ½ As a decimal: 0.5 As a percentage: 50%
A Quarter can be written …
As a fraction: ¼
As a decimal: 0.25
As a percentage: 25%




Converting Between Percentage and Decimal
Percentage means "per 100", so 50% means 50 per 100, or simply 50/100. If you divide 50 by 100 you get 0.5 (a decimal number). So:
To convert from percentage to decimal: divide by 100 (and remove the "%" sign).
To convert from decimal to percentage: multiply by 100 (and add a "%" sign).
The easiest way to multiply (or divide) by 100 is to move the decimal point 2 places. So:
From Decimal- 0.125 0 1 2 5 To percent -12.5%
Move the decimal point 2 places to the right, and add the % sign.
From Percent -75% 0 7 5 To decimal -0.75
Move the decimal point 2 places to the left, and remove the % sign. Converting Between Fractions and Decimals
The easiest way to convert a fraction to a decimal is to divide the top number by the bottom number (divide the numerator by the denominator in mathematical language)
Example: Convert 2/5 to a decimal
Divide 2 by 5: 2 ÷ 5 = 0.4
Answer: 2/5 = 0.4


To convert a decimal to a fraction needs a little more work:
· Write down the decimal “over” the number 1. E.g 0.75/1
· Then multiply top and bottom by 10 for every number after the decimal point. E.g 0.75x100 / 1x 100. This makes it a correctly formed fraction =75/100.
· Then, simplify the fraction =3/4.
Converting Between Percentages and Fractions
The easiest way to convert a fraction to a percentage is to divide the top number by the bottom number. then multiply the result by 100 (and add the "%" sign)
Example: Convert 3/8 to a percentage
First divide 3 by 8: 3 ÷ 8 = 0.375,Then multiply by 100: 0.375 x 100 = 37.5Add the "%" sign: 37.5%
Answer: 3/8 = 37.5%
Changing fractions and decimals to percentages and vice versa.
A fraction or a decimal number can be changed into a percentage by
a) Changing the denominator ( of fractions ) to 100 or
b) Multiplying the fraction or decimal number by 100 %
Example,
2/5
= 2/5 x 100 %
= 40 %


0.3
= 0.3 x 100 %
=30 %
A percentage can be changed into a fraction or a decimal number by dividing it with 100.
Example
Change each of the following into
i) a fraction ii) a decimal number -for 65 % and 18%
65 %
i) 65 % = 65/100 = 13/20
ii) 65 % = 65/100 = 0.65
18 %
i) 18% =18/100 = 9/50
ii) 18% = 18/100 = 0.18

IMPORTANT FORMULAE
Percentage increase = increase in value x 100 %
Original value
Percentage decrease = decrease in value x 100%
Original value
Profit = selling price – cost price
Loss = cost price – selling price
Discount =New selling price – Original selling price
Percentage discount = Discount x 100%
Original selling price
Interest = Interest x deposit
Interest rate = Interest x 100 %
Deposit
Commission = Rate of commission x selling price
Rate of commission = Commission x 100%
Selling price














TAS

Examples for daily life problem
APPLICATION OF FRACTION AND MIXED NUMBER
1. An oil tank contains 30 2/5 litres of oil. It is then filled with 37 2/3 litres of oil. Later 56 1/9 litres of oil is pumped out from the tank. What is the volume of oil left in the tank now, in litres?
Solution,
30 2/5 litres + 37 2/3 litres – 56 1/9 litres
=30 + 2/5 + 37 + 2/3 – (56 + 1/9)
=( 30 + 37 + - 56 ) + ( 2/5 + 2/3 – 1/9)
= 11 + ( 18/45 + 30/45 – 5/45)
=11 43 /45 litres.
It contains 11 43/45 litres of oil now.

2. Lin completed 1/6 of her project in 3 ½ days. How long would she take to complete the whole project?
Solution
1/6 of the project takes 3 ½ days = 7/2
The whole project, 1 = 7/2 ÷1/6
= 7/2 x 6/1
=21 days.
Therefore, the time Lin would tale to complete the whole project = 21 days.

3. Hooi cuts a 36 2/5 m long rope into pieces, each measuring 6 1/15 m. Calculate the number of pieces cut.
Solution 36 2/5 ÷ 6 1/15 = 182/5 ÷91 /15
=182/5 x 15/91
=6.
The number of pieces cut is 6.



DECIMALS
1) Swee Yee and her mother made 12.5 litres and 59.7 litres of soya milk respectively for sale. At the end of the day, how much soya milk was sold if they are left with 3.45 litres?
Solution 12.5 L + 59.7 L – 3.45 L
=72.2 L – 3.45 L
=68.75 L
Quantity of soya milk sold = 68.75 L

2) 7.2 kg of durians costs RM 28.08. How much would 15.8 kg of the same kind of durians cost ?
Solution
Price of 7.2 kg of durians = Rm 28.08
Price of 1 kg durians =Rm 28.08
7.2
Price of 15.8 kg of durians = Rm 28.08 X 15.8
7.2
=RM 61.62

3) Idham bought a piece of wire measuring 53 m long. He used 13 .9 m of it and sold the remainder to Samuel at 50 sen metre. How much did Samuel pay for the wire?
Solution
Length of wire bought by Samuel
=(53 – 13.9 ) m
= 39.1 m
Price of wire per metre= Rm 0.50
Price of 39.1 m of wire = Rm 0.50 x 39.1
=Rm19.55
Therefore, the amount Samuel paid
=Rm 19.55.
PERCENT
1) A handbag which is normally sold for Rm180, is sold for Rm108 during a sale. What is the percentage discount?
Solution
Discount = Rm180 –Rm 108
=Rm 72.
Percentage discount = Rm72 x 100%
Rm180
= Rm 40%


2) Wen is paid a commission of 7 % for every house she sells. If she sells a house for Rm 80 000, what is her commission?
Solution
Commission = 7% of Rm80 000
= 7 x Rm80 000
100
=Rm 5 600


3) Jason bought a new car for Rm 50 000 and sold it for Rm45 000 after one year. Calculate the percentage loss.
Solution
Loss =Rm 50 000 –Rm 45 000
=Rm 5 000
Percentage loss
=Rm 5 000 x 100%
Rm 50 000
=10%

relevant materials on parts of speech

PARTS OF SPEECH


VERBS
The verb is the most important part of the sentence. A verb or compound verb asserts something about the subject of the sentence and express actions, events, or states of being. The verb or compound verb is the critical element of the predicate of a sentence. Examples, the verb of the sentences are highlighted:
Dracula bites his victims on the neck.
The verb "bites" describes the action Dracula takes.
In early July, Siti will plant twenty tulip bulbs.
Here the compound verb "will plant" describes an action that will take place in the future.


NOUNS
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Nouns are usually the first words which small children learn. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all nouns:
Late last year our friends bought a goat.
Portia White was an opera singer.
The bus inspector looked at all the passengers' passes.

A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb.
Noun Gender
Many common nouns, like "engineer" or "teacher," can refer to men or women. Once, many English nouns would change form depending on their gender -- for example, a man was called an "author" while a woman was called an "authoress" -- but this use of gender-specific nouns is very rare today. Those that are still used occasionally tend to refer to occupational categories, as in the following sentences.
David Garrick was a very prominent eighteenth-century actor.
Sarah Siddons was at the height of her career as an actress in the 1780s.
Noun Plurals
Most nouns change their form to indicate number by adding "-s" or "-es", as illustrated in the following pairs of sentences:
Many people do not believe that truths are self-evident.
He tripped over a box left carelessly in the hallway.
Since we are moving, we will need many boxes.
There are other nouns which form the plural by changing the last letter before adding "s". Some words ending in "f" form the plural by deleting "f" and adding "ves," and words ending in "y" form the plural by deleting the "y" and adding "ies," as in the following pairs of sentences:
The harbour at Marble Mountain has one wharf.
There are several wharves in Halifax Harbour.
Warsaw is their favourite city because it reminds them of their courtship.
The vacation my grandparents won includes trips to twelve European cities.


The children circled around the headmaster and shouted, "Are you a mouse or a man?"
The audience was shocked when all five men admitted that they were afraid of mice.
Possessive Nouns
In the possessive case, a noun or pronoun changes its form to show that it owns or is closely related to something else. Usually, nouns become possessive by adding a combination of an apostrophe and the letter "s."
You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that does not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the following sentences:
The red suitcase is Cassandra's.
The only luggage that was lost was the prime minister's.
The exhausted recruits were woken before dawn by the drill sergeant's screams.
The miner's face was covered in coal dust.
You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that ends in "s" by adding an apostrophe alone or by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the following examples:
The bus's seats are very uncomfortable.
The bus' seats are very uncomfortable.
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus' eggs.
Felicia Hemans's poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.
Felicia Hemans' poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.

You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe and a "s," as in the following examples:
The children's mittens were scattered on the floor of the porch.
The sheep's pen was mucked out every day.
Since we have a complex appeal process, a jury's verdict is not always final.
The men's hockey team will be playing as soon as the women's team is finished.
You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does end in "s" by adding an apostrophe:
The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies' squalling.
The janitors' room is downstairs and to the left.
My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest. .
Using Possessive Nouns
When you read the following sentences, you will notice that a noun in the possessive case frequently functions as an adjective modifying another noun:
The miner's face was covered in coal dust.
Here the possessive noun "miner's" is used to modify the noun "face" and together with the article "the," they make up the noun phrase that is the sentence's subject.



The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies' squalling.
In this sentence, each possessive noun modifies a gerund. The possessive noun "dogs"' modifies "barking", "ducks"' modifies "quacking," and "babies"' modifies "squalling."
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.
In this example the possessive noun "platypus's" modifies the noun "eggs" and the noun phrase "the platypus's eggs" is the direct object of the verb "crushed."
My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.
In this sentence the possessive noun "squirrels"' is used to modify the noun "nest" and the noun phrase "the squirrels' nest" is the object of the infinitive phrase "to locate."
Types of Nouns
PROPER NOUNS
COMMON NOUNS
ABSTRACT NOUNS
COLLECTIVE NOUNS
CONCRETE NOUNS
COUNTABLE NOUNS
NON- COUNTABLE NOUNS
Proper Nouns
You always write a proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun represents the name of a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organizations, religions, their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a common noun.
The proper nouns are highlighted, examples:
Many people dread Monday mornings.
Beltane is celebrated on the first of May.
Abraham appears in the Talmud and in the Koran.
Common Nouns
A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense -- usually, you should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A common noun is the opposite of a proper noun.
In each of the following sentences, the common nouns are highlighted:
According to the sign, the nearest town is 60 miles away.
All the gardens in the neighbourhood were invaded by beetles this summer.
I don't understand why some people insist on having six different kinds of mustard in their cupboards.
The road crew was startled by the sight of three large moose crossing the road.
Many child-care workers are underpaid.
Sometimes you will make proper nouns out of common nouns, as in the following examples:
The tenants in the Garnet Apartments are appealing the large and sudden increase in their rent.
The meals in the Bouncing Bean Restaurant are less expensive than meals in ordinary restaurants.
Concrete Nouns
A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the opposite of a abstract noun.
The highlighted are examples of concrete nouns:
The judge handed the files to the clerk.
Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves.
The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it had new shingles.
Abstract Nouns
An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not perceive through your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all abstract nouns:
Buying the fire extinguisher was an afterthought.
Tillie is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.
Countable Nouns
A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count. You can make a countable noun can be made plural and attach it to a plural verb in a sentence. Countable nouns are the opposite of non-countable nouns and collective nouns.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted words are countable nouns:
We painted the table red and the chairs blue.
Since he inherited his aunt's library, Jerome spends every weekend indexing his books.
Non-Countable Nouns
A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence. Non-countable nouns are similar to collective nouns, and are the opposite of countable nouns.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are non-countable nouns:
Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen.
The word "oxygen" cannot normally be made plural.
Since "oxygen" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb "is" rather than the plural verb "are."
We decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with use when we moved.
You cannot make the noun "furniture" plural.
The furniture is heaped in the middle of the room.
Since "furniture" is a non-countable noun, it takes a singular verb, "is heaped."
The crew spread the gravel over the roadbed.
You cannot make the non-countable noun "gravel" plural.
Gravel is more expensive than I thought.
Since "gravel" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb form "is."
Collective Nouns
A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. You could count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole is generally as one unit. You need to be able to recognise collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the opposite of a countable noun.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a collective noun:
The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture.
The jury is dining on take-out chicken tonight.
Pronouns
A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. You use pronouns like "he," "which," "none," and "you" to make your sentences less cumbersome and less repetitive.
Types of pronouns
· personal pronoun
· demonstrative pronoun
· interrogative pronoun
· indefinite pronoun
· relative pronoun
· reflexive pronoun
· intensive pronoun
Personal Pronouns
A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate person, number, gender, and case.
Subjective Personal Pronouns
A subjective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as the subject of the sentence. The subjective personal pronouns are "I," "you," "she," "he," "it," "we," "you," "they."
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a subjective personal pronoun and acts as the subject of the sentence:
He stole the money.
I love you so much.
After many years, they returned to their homeland.
Objective Personal Pronouns
An objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a verb, compound verb, preposition, or infinitive phrase. The objective personal pronouns are: "me," "you," "her," "him," "it," "us," "you," and "them."
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is an objective personal pronoun:
Sam takes her bag.
The objective personal pronoun "her" is the direct object of the verb takes.
They will meet us at the newest café in the market.
Here the objective personal pronoun "us" is the direct object of the compound verb "will meet."

Possessive Personal Pronouns
A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of possession and defines who owns a particular object or person. The possessive personal pronouns are "mine," "yours," "hers," "his," "its," "ours," and "theirs." Note that possessive personal pronouns are very similar to possessive adjectives like "my," "her," and "their."
Examples, the highlighted word is a possessive personal pronoun:.
This is yours.
Here too the possessive pronoun "yours" functions as a subject complement.
Theirs will be delivered tomorrow.
In this sentence, the possessive pronoun "theirs" is the subject of the sentence.
Ours is the green one on the corner.
Here too the possessive pronoun "ours" function as the subject of the sentence.
Demonstrative Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. "This" and "these" refer to things that are nearby either in space or in time, while "that" and "those" refer to things that are farther away in space or time.
The demonstrative pronouns are "this," "that," "these," and "those." "This" and "that" are used to refer to singular nouns or noun phrases and "these" and "those" are used to refer to plural nouns and noun phrases.
Note that the demonstrative pronouns are identical to demonstrative adjectives, though, obviously, you use them differently. It is also important to note that "that" can also be used as a relative pronoun.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a demonstrative pronoun:
This must not continue.
Here "this" is used as the subject of the compound verb "must not continue."
That is the tree I want.
The demonstrative pronoun "that" is also a subject but refers to something farther away from the speaker.
Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions. The interrogative pronouns are "who," "whom," "which," "what" and the compounds formed with the suffix "ever" ("whoever," "whomever," "whichever," and "whatever"). Note that either "which" or "what" can also be used as an interrogative adjective, and that "who," "whom," or "which" can also be used as a relative pronoun.
You will find "who," "whom," and occasionally "which" used to refer to people, and "which" and "what" used to refer to things and to animals.
"Who" acts as the subject of a verb, while "whom" acts as the object of a verb, preposition, or a verbal.


The highlighted word in each of the following sentences is an interrogative pronoun:
Which wants to see the dentist first?
"Which” is the subject of the sentence?
Who wrote the novel Rockbound?
Similarly "who" is the subject of the sentence.
Who will meet the delegates at the train station?
In this sentence, the interrogative pronoun "who" is the subject of the compound verb "will meet".
Relative Pronouns
You can use a relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. The relative pronouns are "who," "whom," "that," and "which." The compounds "whoever," "whomever," and "whichever" are also relative pronouns.
You can use the relative pronouns "who" and "whoever" to refer to the subject of a clause or sentence, and "whom" and "whomever" to refer to the objects of a verb, a verbal or a preposition.
Examples,
You may invite whomever you like to the party.
The relative pronoun "whomever" is the direct object of the compound verb "may invite".

Whoever broke the window will have to replace it.
Here "whoever" functions as the subject of the verb "broke".
Indefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some.
The most common indefinite pronouns are "all," "another," "any," "anybody," "anyone," "anything," "each," "everybody," "everyone," "everything," "few," "many," "nobody," "none," "one," "several," "some," "somebody," and "someone." Note that some indefinite pronouns can also be used as indefinite adjectives.

Examples,
Many were invited to the lunch but only twelve showed up.
Here "many" acts as the subject of the compound verb "were invited".
Give a registration package to each.
Here "each" is the object of the preposition "to."
Reflexive Pronouns
You can use a reflexive pronoun to refer back to the subject of the clause or sentence.
The reflexive pronouns are "myself," "yourself," "herself," "himself," "itself," "ourselves," "yourselves," and "themselves." Note each of these can also act as an intensive pronoun.
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a reflexive pronoun:
Diabetics give themselves insulin shots several times a day.
After the party, I asked myself why I had faxed invitations to everyone in my office building.
Richard usually remembered to send a copy of his e-mail to himself.
Intensive Pronouns
An intensive pronoun is a pronoun used to emphasize its antecedent. Intensive pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are intensive pronouns:
I myself believe that aliens should abduct my sister.
The Prime Minister himself said that he would lower taxes.

Adjectives
An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.
In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:
The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.
Mrs. Morrison papered her kitchen walls with hideous wall paper.
The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.
The coal mines are dark and dank. .

An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or by a phrase or clause functioning as an adverb. In the sentence
My husband knits intricately patterned mittens.
For example, the adverb ``intricately'' modifies the adjective ``patterned.''
Some nouns, many pronouns, and many participle phrases can also act as adjectives. In the sentence
Eleanor listened to the muffled sounds of the radio hidden under her pillow.
For example, both highlighted adjectives are past participles.
Possessive Adjectives
A possessive adjective (``my,'' ``your,'' ``his,'' ``her,'' ``its,'' ``our,'' ``their'') is similar or identical to a possessive pronoun; however, it is used as an adjective and modifies a noun or a noun phrase, as in the following sentences:
I can't complete my assignment because I don't have the textbook.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective ``my'' modifies ``assignment'' and the noun phrase ``my assignment'' functions as an object. Note that the possessive pronoun form ``mine'' is not used to modify a noun or noun phrase.
The bakery sold his favourite type of bread.
In this example, the possessive adjective ``his'' modifies the noun phrase ``favourite type of bread'' and the entire noun phrase ``his favourite type of bread'' is the direct object of the verb ``sold.''


After many years, she returned to her homeland.
Here the possessive adjective ``her'' modifies the noun ``homeland'' and the noun phrase ``her homeland'' is the object of the preposition ``to.'' Note also that the form ``hers'' is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.'
Demonstrative Adjectives
The demonstrative adjectives ``this,'' ``these,'' ``that,'' ``those,'' and ``what'' are identical to the demonstrative pronouns, but are used as adjectives to modify nouns or noun phrases, as in the following sentences:
When the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of books.
In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective ``that'' modifies the noun ``cord'' and the noun phrase ``that cord'' is the object of the preposition ``over.''
This apartment needs to be fumigated.
Here ``this'' modifies ``apartment'' and the noun phrase ``this apartment'' is the subject of the sentence.
Note that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a demonstrative pronoun is similar to the relationship between a possessive adjective and a possessive pronoun, or to that between a interrogative adjective and an interrogative pronoun.

Interrogative Adjectives
An interrogative adjective (``which'' or ``what'') is like an interrogative pronoun, except that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own (see also demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives):
Which plants should be watered twice a week?
Like other adjectives, ``which'' can be used to modify a noun or a noun phrase. In this example, ``which'' modifies ``plants'' and the noun phrase ``which paints'' is the subject of the compound verb ``should be watered'':
What book are you reading?
In this sentence, ``what'' modifies ``book'' and the noun phrase ``what book'' is the direct object of the compound verb ``are reading.''
Indefinite Adjectives
An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun, except that it modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, as in the following sentences:
Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed.
The indefinite adjective ``many'' modifies the noun ``people'' and the noun phrase ``many people'' is the subject of the sentence.
I will send you any mail that arrives after you have moved to Sudbury.
The indefinite adjective ``any'' modifies the noun ``mail'' and the noun phrase ``any mail'' is the direct object of the compound verb ``will send.''
They found a few goldfish floating belly up in the swan pound.
In this example the indefinite adjective modifies the noun ``goldfish'' and the noun phrase is the direct object of the verb ``found'':
The title of Kelly's favourite game is ``All dogs go to heaven.''
Here the indefinite pronoun ``all'' modifies ``dogs'' and the full title is a subject complement.
Adverbs
An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much".
While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "ly" suffix, most of them must be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentence or clause as a whole. Unlike an adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within the sentence.
In the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an adverb:
The seamstress quickly made the mourning clothes.
In this sentence, the adverb "quickly" modifies the verb "made" and indicates in what manner (or how fast) the clothing was constructed.
The midwives waited patiently through a long labour.
Similarly in this sentence, the adverb "patiently" modifies the verb "waited" and describes the manner in which the midwives waited.
Unfortunately, the bank closed at three today.
In this example, the adverb "unfortunately" modifies the entire sentence.
Conjunctive Adverbs
You can use a conjunctive adverb to join two clauses together. Some of the most common conjunctive adverbs are "also," "consequently," "finally," "furthermore," "hence," "however," "incidentally," "indeed," "instead," "likewise," "meanwhile," "nevertheless," "next," "nonetheless," "otherwise," "still," "then," "therefore," and "thus." A conjunctive adverb is not strong enough to join two independent clauses without the aid of a semicolon.
Examples,
The government has cut university budgets; consequently, class sizes have been increased.
He did not have all the ingredients the recipe called for; therefore, he decided to make something else.
The report recommended several changes to the ways the corporation accounted for donations; furthermore, it suggested that a new auditor be appointed immediately.
Prepositions
A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence. The word or phrase that the preposition introduces is called the object of the preposition.
A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its object to the rest of the sentence as in the following examples:
The book is on the table.
The book is beside the table.
She read the book during class.
In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun "book" in space or in time.
A prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition, its object and any associated adjectives or adverbs. A prepositional phrase can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. The most common prepositions are "about," "above," "across," "after," "against," "along," "among," "around," "at," "before," "behind," "below," "beneath," "beside," "between," "beyond," "but," "by," "despite," "down," "during," "except," "for," "from," "in," "inside," "into," "like," "near," "of," "off," "on," "onto," "out," "outside," "over," "past," "since," "through," "throughout," "till," "to," "toward," "under," "underneath," "until," "up," "upon," "with," "within," and "without."
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a preposition:
The children climbed the mountain without fear.
In this sentence, the preposition "without" introduces the noun "fear." The prepositional phrase "without fear" functions as an adverb describing how the children climbed.
There was rejoicing throughout the land when the government was defeated.
Here, the preposition "throughout" introduces the noun phrase "the land." The prepositional phrase acts as an adverb describing the location of the rejoicing.
The spider crawled slowly along the banister.
The preposition "along" introduces the noun phrase "the banister" and the prepositional phrase "along the banister" acts as an adverb, describing where the spider crawled.
Conjunctions
You can use a conjunction to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the following example:
I ate the pizza and the pasta.
Call the movers when you are ready.
Co-ordinating Conjunctions
You use a co-ordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," or "yet") to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses. Note that you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as prepositions.
Examples,
Lilacs and violets are usually purple.
In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "and" links two nouns.
This movie is particularly interesting to feminist film theorists, for the screenplay was written by Mae West.
In this example, the co-ordinating conjunction "for" is used to link two independent clauses.
Daniel's uncle claimed that he spent most of his youth dancing on rooftops and swallowing goldfish.
Here the co-coordinating conjunction "and" links two participle phrases ("dancing on rooftops" and "swallowing goldfish") which act as adverbs describing the verb "spends."
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the nature of the relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent clause(s).
The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as," "because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though," "till," "until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while."
Examples,
After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.
The subordinating conjunction "after" introduces the dependent clause "After she had learned to drive."
If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on Tuesday.
Similarly, the subordinating conjunction "if" introduces the dependent clause "If the paperwork arrives on time."
Gerald had to begin his thesis over again when his computer crashed.
The subordinating conjunction "when" introduces the dependent clause "when his computer crashed."
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link equivalent sentence elements. The most common correlative conjunctions are "both...and," "either...or," "neither...nor,", "not only...but also," "so...as," and "whether...or." (Technically correlative conjunctions consist simply of a co-ordinating conjunction linked to an adjective or adverb.)
Examples,
Both my grandfather and my father worked in the steel plant.
In this sentence, the correlative conjunction "both...and" is used to link the two noun phrases that act as the compound subject of the sentence: "my grandfather" and "my father".



Bring either a Jello salad or a potato scallop.
Here the correlative conjunction "either...or" links two noun phrases: "a Jello salad" and "a potato scallop."
The explosion destroyed not only the school but also the neighbouring pub.


Interjections
An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not grammatically related to any other part of the sentence.
You usually follow an interjection with an exclamation mark. Interjections are uncommon in formal academic prose, except in direct quotations.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are interjections:
Ouch, that hurt!
Oh no, I forgot that the exam was today.
Hey! Put that down!
I don't know about you but, good lord, I think taxes are too high!

PETUA MENCUCI HATI

Petua Mencuci Hati oleh Datuk Dr Haji Fadzilah Kamsah
Segala aspek kehidupan ini bermula daripada hati. Oleh itu di bawahini ada beberapa cara bagaimana hendak mencuci hati. Diolah oleh pakarmotivasi Datuk Dr. Haji Fadzilah Kamsah.
1. Dirikan solat dan banyakkan berdo'a - Ini adalah salah satu kaedah yang sungguh berkesan. Semasa berdo'a turut katakan "Ya,Allah jadikan hatiku bersih"

2. Selawat keatas Nabi Muhammad s.a.w paling minima 100 X sebelum tidur - Ini merupakan satu pelaburan yang mudah dan murah. Disamping dosa-dosa diampunkan, otak tenang, murah rezeki, orang sayangkan kita dan mencetuskan semua perkara kebaikan.

3. Solat taubat - Selain daripada memohon keampunan, dapat mencuci hati dan menenangkan minda.

4. Membaca Al-Quran - Selain dapat mencuci hati juga menenangkan jiwa, penyembuh, penenang, terapi. Sekurang- kurangnya bacalah "Qulhu-allah" sebanyak 3X.

5. Berma'af-ma' afan sesama kawan setiap hari - Semasa meminta maaf perlu sebutkan.

6. Bisikan kepada diri perkara yang positif - Jangan sesekali mengkritik, kutuk diri sendiri, merendah-rendahkan kebolehan diri sendiri. katakan lah "Aku sebenarnya.. ....(perkara yang elok-elok belaka)

7. Program minda/cuci minda - Paling baik pada waktu malam sebelum tidur, senyum, pejam mata, katakan di dalam hati "Ya, Allah cuci otak aku, cuci hatiku, esok aku nak jadi baik, berjaya, ceria, bersemangat, aktif, positif". Menurut kajian psikologi, apa yang disebut sebelum tidur dapat dirakamkan sepanjang tidur sehingga keesokan harinya - CUBALAH!!).

8. Berpuasa - Sekiranya dalam berpuasa terhindar dari melakukan perkara-perkara kejahatan.

9. Cuba ingat tentang mati (Sekiranya hendak melakukan sesuatu kejahatan, tidak sampai hati kerana bimbang akan mati bila- bila masa).

10. Kekalkan wuduk.
11. Bersedekah.
12. Belanja orang makan.
13. Jaga makanan - jangan makan makanan yang subhat.
14. Berkawan dengan ulama.
15. Berkawan dengan orang miskin (menginsafi) .
16. Pesan pada orang, jadi baik.
17. Menjaga pacaindera (mata, telinga, mulut...dsb) , jangan dengar orang mengumpat. terima kasih kerana membaca..

renungan utk teman2 ku..

Sabda Rasullulah s.a.w : Lihatlah kepada orang yang berada di bawah kamu dan janganlah kamu melihat kepada orang yang berada di atas kamu. maka ia lebih nyata bahawa kamu tidak akan menghina nikmat Allah atas kamu.( riwayat al-Bukhari & Muslim )

7 ayat cinta

Barangsiapa yang hafal dan mengamalkan tujuh kalimah ini akan dimuliakan oleh Allah dan malaikat dan akan diampuni dosa-dosanya walau sebanyak buih di lautan..

1.Bismillahhirrahmannirrahim:pada tiap-tiap hendak melakukan sesuatu.
2.alhamdulliah:pada tiap-tiap habis melakukan sesuatu.
3.astagfirrullah:jika tersilap mengatakan sesuatu yang buruk.
4.insyaallah:jika ingin muelakukan sesuatu pada masa akan datang.
5.lahaulawalaquataillahbillah:bila tidak dapat melakukan sesuatu yang agak berat atau melihat sesuatu yang buruk.
6.innalillah:jika menghadapi musibah atau melihat kematian.
7.laailaahaillallah:bacalah sepanjang siang dan malam sebanyak-banyaknya.amalkanlah selalu moga-moga kita tergolong dikalangan orang yang terpilih oleh Allah.

sabda Rasulluah siapa yang menyampaikan satu ilmu dan orang yang mengamalkannya maka dia akan beroleh pahala walaupun sudah tiada....